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Background

Before the time of Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire, the Mongols had been a group of semibarbaric nomadic tribes, essentially moving through history unnoticed. Their cultural traditions were primitive, and they had little experience with economic activity save for some organized hunting expeditions and herding. Until a few years before Kublai Khan’s birth, in fact, the Mongols had been illiterate and gave little thought to ideas of statecraft or nation building.

With a few exceptions, such as Kublai Khan himself (known to Mongols as Setsen Khan, or “Wise Khan”), Mongol rulers seem to have viewed power as a personal possession to be exploited for personal gain, never giving thought to extending their influence or creating a wide-reaching empire, and so they never succeeded in organizing a long-lasting state. Adding to this issue was that the Mongols had come to power in China, as they had elsewhere, by brute force, never incorporating political savvy into the equation. (As one of Kublai’s advisers later said to the emperor, “I have heard that one can conquer the empire on horseback, but one cannot govern it on horseback,” an axiom that Kublai absorbed and acted upon as khan.) Predictably, this political incompetence greatly contributed to the relatively rapid collapse of the Mongol Empire.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Kublai was the fourth son of Tulë, by his favorite wife, and the grandson of Genghis Khan (c. 1165-1227), founder of the Mongol Empire. Strong, fearless and intelligent, Kublai accompanied his father into battle as a child. By age 12, he was a skilled horseman, and his reputation as a warrior grew with each passing year. Kublai was 17 when his father died, but he didn’t begin to play an important part in the extension and development of the Mongol Empire until around 1251, when he was in his mid-30s. That year, his brother Mngke became Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Kublai was given control over Chinese territories in the eastern part of the empire.

Once holding the reins of the empire, Mngke resolved to complete the conquest of Song China and to subdue Persia. For his part, Kublai was put in charge of expeditions with the goal of unifying China under the new Mongol emperor. Having an appreciation of Chinese thought, he organized a group of Confucian Chinese advisers to introduce reforms in his territories. His stance on the role and structure of government was shaped by the wisdom these advisers imparted. They convinced him of the necessity of interdependence between the ruler and the ruled, reinforcing Kublai’s instinctive tendency toward humanity and generosity of spirit. This approach, the advancement of a philosophy of civilized behavior, was a great departure of thought in the Mongol line from the methods employed by Genghis Khan and Kublai’s contemporaries, where the capture of a city or territory, for instance, was expected to include complete devastation followed by a massacre of the population. It would help Kublai’s rise to power continue beyond the typical initial stages.

In 1257, unhappy with how the war against the Chinese Song Dynasty was progressing, Mngke led an expedition into western China. He was killed by the Chinese defense in August 1259, however, and his younger brother Arigbge immediately made plans to have himself named khan. When Kublai, who was besieging a Chinese city with his army, heard of Arigbge’s plans, he and his associates held an assembly, during which Kublai was unanimously elected khan in succession to Mngke. Ten days later, he announced his succession in an announcement drawn up in classical Chinese. However, because primogeniture was not a recognized principle at the time (Kublai was older), Arigbge had himself declared khan, ignoring Kublai’s pronouncement.

In 1264, Kublai defeated Arigbge in battle; two years later, Arigbge died. However, the disputed nature of Kublai’s reign did not die with Arigbge, as certain family factions would repeatedly lay claim to the throne. Kublai, however, would never relinquish his power, and no effort aimed against him would be successful.