The Ibeji Belief SystemAs the Yoruba believe that twins share the same combined
soul, when a newborn twin dies, the life of the other is
imperilled because the balance of his soul has become seri-
ously disturbed. To counteract this danger a special ritual is
carried out. After consulting the Babalawo, an artisan will
be commissioned to carve a small wooden figure as a sym-
bolic substitute for the soul of the deceased twin. If both
twins have died, two of these figures are made (Figure 2;
Jantzen & Bertisch, 1993; Mobolade, 1971; Stoll & Stoll,
1980).
These effigies are called Ere ibeji (from ‘ibi’ = born
and ‘eji’ = two; ere means sacred image). By virtue of his
immortal soul hosted by his ibeji, the departed twin remains as
powerful as the living one. The ibeji(s) will have
to be cared for by the parents or later on by the surviving
twin. Therefore, these figures are symbolically washed, fed
and clothed on a regular basis, according to a popular
Yoruba saying “dead ibeji expenses are expenses for the living”
(Courlander, 1973). According to these customs, the
mother enjoys certain privileges even if both her twins have
died (Stoll & Stoll, 1980).
| Yoruba people happen to exhibit the highest twinning rate in the world (Figure 3). |
In Caucasian populations, the
tendency for dizygotic twinning has been found to be
mainly hereditary (Meulemans, 1994). According to
Nylander (1979), its high frequency among Yoruba people
might also depend on dietary factors such as the consump-
tion of special species of yams containing oestrogenic
substances. Because of a high rate of premature delivery
and the lack of adequate medical care and health infrastruc-
tures in traditional Nigeria, the perinatal mortality of twins
used to be very high (Leroy, 1995). This explains why great
numbers of i beji statuettes have been produced in
Yorubaland and that they may have accumulated on the
domestic altar of certain families (Stoll & Stoll, 1980).
From the anthropological point of view, the ibeji belief
provides a means of helping Yoruba people to cope emo-
tionally with this high perinatal loss of twin babies (Leroy,
1995). At least once a year in some areas, Yoruba mothers
of deceased twins dance with their twin effigies, either held
tightly in the palms of their hands or tucked in the wrapper
about their waist (Figure 4). On these occasions the
mothers will also sing special songs in praise of the twins
(Thompson, 1971). Some of these songs emphasise the
belief that twins are related to colobus monkeys, the flesh
of which they are expressly forbidden to consume. One of
the popular Yoruba myths tells how twins came to earth as
the consequence of the confrontation of a farmer with the
monkeys in the ancient area of Ishokun (Courlander,
1973).
Two Yoruba songs in praise of twins
(Courlander, 1973; Olaleye-Oruene, 1983).
Fine looking twins, natives of Ishokun,
Descendants of treetop monkeys.
Twins saw the houses of the rich but did not go there,
Twins saw the houses of great personages but did not go there
Instead they entered the houses of the poor.
They made the poor rich, they clothed those who were naked.
Majestic and beautiful looking twins, natives of Ishokun,
Let me find means of eating, let me find means of drinking.
Majestic and beautiful looking twins, come and give me
The blessing of a child.
tendency for dizygotic twinning has been found to be
mainly hereditary (Meulemans, 1994). According to
Nylander (1979), its high frequency among Yoruba people
might also depend on dietary factors such as the consump-
tion of special species of yams containing oestrogenic
substances. Because of a high rate of premature delivery
and the lack of adequate medical care and health infrastruc-
tures in traditional Nigeria, the perinatal mortality of twins
used to be very high (Leroy, 1995). This explains why great
numbers of i beji statuettes have been produced in
Yorubaland and that they may have accumulated on the
domestic altar of certain families (Stoll & Stoll, 1980).
From the anthropological point of view, the ibeji belief
provides a means of helping Yoruba people to cope emo-
tionally with this high perinatal loss of twin babies (Leroy,
1995). At least once a year in some areas, Yoruba mothers
of deceased twins dance with their twin effigies, either held
tightly in the palms of their hands or tucked in the wrapper
about their waist (Figure 4). On these occasions the
mothers will also sing special songs in praise of the twins
(Thompson, 1971). Some of these songs emphasise the
belief that twins are related to colobus monkeys, the flesh
of which they are expressly forbidden to consume. One of
the popular Yoruba myths tells how twins came to earth as
the consequence of the confrontation of a farmer with the
monkeys in the ancient area of Ishokun (Courlander,
1973).
Two Yoruba songs in praise of twins
(Courlander, 1973; Olaleye-Oruene, 1983).
Fine looking twins, natives of Ishokun,
Descendants of treetop monkeys.
Twins saw the houses of the rich but did not go there,
Twins saw the houses of great personages but did not go there
Instead they entered the houses of the poor.
They made the poor rich, they clothed those who were naked.
Majestic and beautiful looking twins, natives of Ishokun,
Let me find means of eating, let me find means of drinking.
Majestic and beautiful looking twins, come and give me
The blessing of a child.
Ibeji StatuettesYorubas are the heirs of the prestigious artistic traditions
that prevailed in the ancient kingdom of Benin and the
sacred civilisation of Ifa. Yoruba traditional craftsmen have
hence produced some of the most elaborate and classical
examples of black African art (Bascom, 1973). Ibeji stat-
uettes are among the best-known Yoruba wooden carvings.
Although representing deceased babies, the latter are never
referred to as dead. Rather they are said to “have travelled”
or “gone to the market”. Ibeji effigies appear as wooden
erect adult beings about ten inches tall. They stand in a
“hands on the hips” position, generally on a round or quad-
rangular baseplate.
Following this general pattern, they nevertheless show
marked stylistic differences according to region of origin.
These differences are especially apparent in the shapes of
the heads, facial expressions, tribal scarring, and hairdos or
head covers. These latter are often dyed in bright blue with
indigo or even with dolly blue (Jantzen & Bertisch, 1993;
Thompson, 1971). Many ibejis are partly covered with a
crust of dried camwood powder. They may also present
facial smoothing and a patina due to frequent ritual use.
Very often, they are decorated with metal, cowrie-shell or
pearl necklaces, bracelets and belts. The colours of these
ornaments refer to deities such as Shango or Eshu whereas
cowrie shells, which were used in the past as currency,
remind the twins’ power either to bestow riches or to inflict
misfortune (Massa, 1999). Some ibejis are enclosed in a
large coat covered with eight rows of cowrie shells or deco-
rated with brightly coloured pearl designs. In some regions
this design may appear as a zigzag lightning pattern in
honour of the god Shango (Thompson, 1971). In this
context it is interesting to recall that worldwide, twins have
been linked to thunder. Even in the bible, Jesus Christ
called the twin apostles James and John “Boanerges”
(boanergeV) meaning “sons of thunder” (Leroy, 1995).
Transatlantic SpreadThe population of the West Indies and of the Eastern coast
of South America largely originates from the previous
African “Slave Coast” corresponding to the present-day
coast of Nigeria and Benin. It is therefore not surprising that
traditional Yoruba twin beliefs have been transposed in
Latin America. Such is the case of Brazilian traditions of the
Candoble and Macumba in the region of Salvador de Bahia
and of the Umbanda in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. These
traditions have maintained the Yoruba Orishas including the
sacred Ere Ibeji. In the Umbanda, the sacred twins are assim-
ilated to the Christian twin saints Cosmas and Damian
(Figure 5). The latter are colloquially called “the two young
men” and are celebrated at the end of September in a feast
especially devoted to children (Zuring, 1977).
that prevailed in the ancient kingdom of Benin and the
sacred civilisation of Ifa. Yoruba traditional craftsmen have
hence produced some of the most elaborate and classical
examples of black African art (Bascom, 1973). Ibeji stat-
uettes are among the best-known Yoruba wooden carvings.
Although representing deceased babies, the latter are never
referred to as dead. Rather they are said to “have travelled”
or “gone to the market”. Ibeji effigies appear as wooden
erect adult beings about ten inches tall. They stand in a
“hands on the hips” position, generally on a round or quad-
rangular baseplate.
Following this general pattern, they nevertheless show
marked stylistic differences according to region of origin.
These differences are especially apparent in the shapes of
the heads, facial expressions, tribal scarring, and hairdos or
head covers. These latter are often dyed in bright blue with
indigo or even with dolly blue (Jantzen & Bertisch, 1993;
Thompson, 1971). Many ibejis are partly covered with a
crust of dried camwood powder. They may also present
facial smoothing and a patina due to frequent ritual use.
Very often, they are decorated with metal, cowrie-shell or
pearl necklaces, bracelets and belts. The colours of these
ornaments refer to deities such as Shango or Eshu whereas
cowrie shells, which were used in the past as currency,
remind the twins’ power either to bestow riches or to inflict
misfortune (Massa, 1999). Some ibejis are enclosed in a
large coat covered with eight rows of cowrie shells or deco-
rated with brightly coloured pearl designs. In some regions
this design may appear as a zigzag lightning pattern in
honour of the god Shango (Thompson, 1971). In this
context it is interesting to recall that worldwide, twins have
been linked to thunder. Even in the bible, Jesus Christ
called the twin apostles James and John “Boanerges”
(boanergeV) meaning “sons of thunder” (Leroy, 1995).
Transatlantic SpreadThe population of the West Indies and of the Eastern coast
of South America largely originates from the previous
African “Slave Coast” corresponding to the present-day
coast of Nigeria and Benin. It is therefore not surprising that
traditional Yoruba twin beliefs have been transposed in
Latin America. Such is the case of Brazilian traditions of the
Candoble and Macumba in the region of Salvador de Bahia
and of the Umbanda in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. These
traditions have maintained the Yoruba Orishas including the
sacred Ere Ibeji. In the Umbanda, the sacred twins are assim-
ilated to the Christian twin saints Cosmas and Damian
(Figure 5). The latter are colloquially called “the two young
men” and are celebrated at the end of September in a feast
especially devoted to children (Zuring, 1977).
In Cuba, a legend of the Santeria belief tells how the
twins born from Oshun, the goddess of water and preg-
nancy, saved the god Shango (see above). In this tradition,
the god of twins is called Jimaguas and is represented by
two statuettes, male and female, united by their navels and
ritually used to cure the sick (Zuring, 1977).
ConclusionSuperstitions and customs pertaining to twins are universal
and often share converging features among cultures without
any mutual geographical or temporal contact (Leroy, 1995).
This would point to the twin cult as one of the earliest
religious beliefs that has been widely spread and diversified
along human history. In relation with their high frequency
and high perinatal mortality of twins, the Yoruba have
developed special beliefs and customs related to twins and
allowing, in particular, to ritualise the bereavement process
when one or both of the twins die.
ReferencesBascom, W. (1973). African art in cultural perspective. New
York & London: W.W. Norton & Cy.
Bolajildowu, E. (1973). African traditional religion. A definition.
London: SCM Press Ltd.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Menozzi, P., & Piazza, A. (1993). The
history and geography of human genes. New Jersey: Princeton
University Press.
Chappel, T. H. (1974). The Yoruba cult of twins in historical
perspective. Africa, 49, 250–265.
Courlander, H. (1973). Tales of Yoruba gods and heroes. New
York: Crown Publishing Inc.
Jantzen, H., & Bertisch, L. (1993). Doppel Leben, Ibeji Zwilling
Figuren [Double life, Ibeji twin figures]. Munchen: Missio
Aachen, Hirmer Verlag.
Leroy, F. (1995). Les jumeaux dans tous leurs états. Louvain –
la -Neuve [ Twins in ever y st at e], Belgiu m: Deboeck
Université.
Meulemans,W. (1994). The genetics of dizygotic twinning.
Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press.
Ma ssa, G. (19 99). La maternité dans l’art d’Afrique noire
[Maternity in black African art]. France: Sépia.
Mobolade, T. (1971). Ibeji customs in Yorubaland. African Arts,
4(3), 14–15.
Nylander, P. P. S. (1979). The twinning incidence in Nigeria.
Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae, 28, 261–263.
Radin, P. (1974). Monotheism among primitive people. New
York: Alan and Unwin.
Olaleye-Oruene, T. (1983). Cultic powers of Yoruba twins.
Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae, 32, 221–228.
Stoll, M., & Stoll, G. (1980). Ibeji. Bad Aibling, Dusseldorf:
Eds Veit Gärtner.
Thomp so n, R. F. ( 1971). Black gods and kings .
Bloomingon/London: UCLA, Indiana University Press.
Watson, E., Bauer, K., Aman, R., Weiss, G., von Haeseler, A.,
& Pääbo, S. (1996). mtDNA sequences diversity in Africa.
American Journal of Genetics, 59, 437–454.
Zuring, J. (1977). Tweelingen in Afrika [Twins in Africa]. Tilburg,
Holland: H. Gianotten.
Twin Research April 2002
twins born from Oshun, the goddess of water and preg-
nancy, saved the god Shango (see above). In this tradition,
the god of twins is called Jimaguas and is represented by
two statuettes, male and female, united by their navels and
ritually used to cure the sick (Zuring, 1977).
ConclusionSuperstitions and customs pertaining to twins are universal
and often share converging features among cultures without
any mutual geographical or temporal contact (Leroy, 1995).
This would point to the twin cult as one of the earliest
religious beliefs that has been widely spread and diversified
along human history. In relation with their high frequency
and high perinatal mortality of twins, the Yoruba have
developed special beliefs and customs related to twins and
allowing, in particular, to ritualise the bereavement process
when one or both of the twins die.
ReferencesBascom, W. (1973). African art in cultural perspective. New
York & London: W.W. Norton & Cy.
Bolajildowu, E. (1973). African traditional religion. A definition.
London: SCM Press Ltd.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Menozzi, P., & Piazza, A. (1993). The
history and geography of human genes. New Jersey: Princeton
University Press.
Chappel, T. H. (1974). The Yoruba cult of twins in historical
perspective. Africa, 49, 250–265.
Courlander, H. (1973). Tales of Yoruba gods and heroes. New
York: Crown Publishing Inc.
Jantzen, H., & Bertisch, L. (1993). Doppel Leben, Ibeji Zwilling
Figuren [Double life, Ibeji twin figures]. Munchen: Missio
Aachen, Hirmer Verlag.
Leroy, F. (1995). Les jumeaux dans tous leurs états. Louvain –
la -Neuve [ Twins in ever y st at e], Belgiu m: Deboeck
Université.
Meulemans,W. (1994). The genetics of dizygotic twinning.
Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press.
Ma ssa, G. (19 99). La maternité dans l’art d’Afrique noire
[Maternity in black African art]. France: Sépia.
Mobolade, T. (1971). Ibeji customs in Yorubaland. African Arts,
4(3), 14–15.
Nylander, P. P. S. (1979). The twinning incidence in Nigeria.
Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae, 28, 261–263.
Radin, P. (1974). Monotheism among primitive people. New
York: Alan and Unwin.
Olaleye-Oruene, T. (1983). Cultic powers of Yoruba twins.
Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae, 32, 221–228.
Stoll, M., & Stoll, G. (1980). Ibeji. Bad Aibling, Dusseldorf:
Eds Veit Gärtner.
Thomp so n, R. F. ( 1971). Black gods and kings .
Bloomingon/London: UCLA, Indiana University Press.
Watson, E., Bauer, K., Aman, R., Weiss, G., von Haeseler, A.,
& Pääbo, S. (1996). mtDNA sequences diversity in Africa.
American Journal of Genetics, 59, 437–454.
Zuring, J. (1977). Tweelingen in Afrika [Twins in Africa]. Tilburg,
Holland: H. Gianotten.
Twin Research April 2002
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