3. History of the Prime Number Theorem
In 1798 Legendre published the first significant conjecture on the size of pi(x), when in his book Essai sur la Théie des Nombres he statedClearly Legendre's conjecture is equivalent to the prime number theorem, the constant 1.08366 was based on his limited table for values of pi(x) (which only went to x = 400,000). In the long run 1 is a better choice than Legendre's 1.08366.
- Legendre:
- pi(x) is approximately x/(log x - 1.08366)
Gauss was also studying prime tables and came up with a different estimate (perhaps first considered in 1791), communicated in a letter to Encke in 1849 and first published in 1863.
Notice again that Gauss' conjecture is equivalent to the prime number theorem. Let's compare these estimates:
- Gauss:
- pi(x) is approximately Li(x) (the principal value of integral of 1/log u from u=0 to u=x).
In this table Gauss' Li(x) is always larger than pi(x), this is true for all small x > 2. However in 1914 Littlewood proved that pi(x)-Li(x) assumes both positive and negative values infinitely often. In 1986 Te Riele showed there are more than 10180 successive integers x for which pi(x)>Li(x) between 6.62.10370 and 6.69.10370.
Table 3. Comparisons of approximations to pi(x) x pi(x) Gauss' Li Legendre x/(log x - 1) R(x) 1000 168 178 172 169 168.4 10000 1229 1246 1231 1218 1226.9 100000 9592 9630 9588 9512 9587.4 1000000 78498 78628 78534 78030 78527.4 10000000 664579 664918 665138 661459 664667.4 100000000 5761455 5762209 5769341 5740304 5761551.9 1000000000 50847534 50849235 50917519 50701542 50847455.4 10000000000 455052511 455055614 455743004 454011971 455050683.3
Tchebycheff made the first real progress toward a proof of the prime number theorem in 1850, showing there exist positive constants a < 1 < b such that
a(x/log x) < pi(x) < b(x/log x)
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